Structure and Characteristics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Structure and Characteristics - Research Paper Example The Chinese population during 1980s was around 1 billion. The slow growth rate o the population can be attributed to ‘one child policy’. In the next few decades, the population of china is expected to increase. Reasons for this expected increase are a decline in infant mortality rate and also a sudden decrease in death rate due to the improvement in national health. Though the population is expected to rise even more, however, around 2030s, it is anticipated to reach its peak level and then decline gradually. Another such country that I have taken up is Germany. Germany along with few other European countries have a substantially low growth rate of population. The German population has crossed 82 million long before. Since 1990s, population of Germany has increased considerably. The main reason behind this increase was immigration, i.e. entry of individuals in the country. Infact, it is also assumed that if Germany did not witness immigration, its population would have b een shrinking much like that of Czech Republic. However, in the near future, the total expected population of Germany is expected to decline. According to destatis.de, in the coming decades, the population will decline due to decline in birth rates and increase in birth rates. Life expectancy will increase and birth rate will continue to fall in future.

Writer's option Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Writer's option - Research Paper Example Smith clarified the way competition enhances the productivity and social wellbeing by promising ideal distribution of resources and labour in the overall economy. Yet, as a pragmatist, Smith had also identified that capitalism will corrupt the competitive markets. He had also realised that in capitalist economy, certain individuals would turn out to be much wealthier and rich in comparison with others. On the assumption that there will be economic growth, the wealthy would become wealthier, however, the poor would also be more affluent. Adam Smith put substantial level of effort for establishing the theory of capitalism and how it would determine competitive markets. Even after his death, the ideas provided by Adam Smith remained significant in the fields of economy (Yardeni & Moss, 1990). Focusing on this aspect, the study examines Adam Smith’s explanation of competitive market. The study also delineates the way in which Adam Smith has viewed the present competitive markets and the manner in which these markets work. In relation to this, the study defines how the rule of exchange works in a competitive market for determining the prices. Capitalism is an economic structure which protects private property and allows free trade in the competitive markets. In capitalism system, individuals are allowed to follow self-interests as long as these interests are controlled by competition and society obtains advantages from lower expenses and increased choices. However, the problem related to capitalism is that self-interest has a natural tendency for collusion and corruption. In other words, capitalists tend to pursue power and to exploit it in order to rigout the market in their favour at the cost of economic disadvantage (Yardeni & Moss, 1990). Adam Smith often cited capitalism as a supporter of free market which signifies deregulation. A deregulated market where government has low

Halal Meat Preparation and Quality Standards

Halal Meat Preparation and Quality Standards Harmonisation of Halal standard is an urge in the current market and there are several main aspects that we need to focus on for harmonisation. In the following session, we will discuss about aspects in Halal standard that should be harmonise between ASEAN countries. Malaysia Halal certification is based on the Malaysian standard of MS 1500:2009 which is the General Guidelines covered the Halal Food Production, Preparation, Handling and Storage. Brunei Darussalam standard is PBD 24:2007 on Halal Food which prepared by its national Religious Council. Thailand National Halal Standard of THS 24000:2552 regarding General Guidelines on Halal Products is prepared by the Central Islamic Committee of Thailand. Indonesia Halal standard is known as General Guidelines of Halal Assurance System LPPOM MUI and being published on year 2008. Finally, Singapores MUIS Halal Certification Standard is regarding the General Guidelines for the Handling and Processing of Halal Food. All this standards will be compare and contrast in the following session to observe the similarity and differences. Each of the standards will be call for short in the text by national standard. Animal Welfare Animal welfare is being regard as an important aspect in Halal slaughtering. Slaughtering act which result in poor cut, bad bleeding and slow loss of consciousness and pain are considered as violating the animal welfare in Islamic Law (Chambers and Grandin, 2001). In Thailand National Halal Standard, it state that animal welfare should be protected according to Islamic law and performed exactly to decrease animal maltreatment. Hence, animals are required to be feed with enough water and taken a rest properly before slaughter and the animal shall be instantly slaughter by sharp knife and their skin should not be cut before it is completely dead. MUIS Halal Certification Standard of Singapore regarding general guidelines for the handling and processing of Halal food also stated that animal should be rested and fed. In addition, it had stated that area to hold the animals before slaughtering should not be near to the slaughtering place by making a significant distance to ensure that the animals in holding area will not see or sense the slaughtering action. Indonesias Guidelines on Chicken Slaughtering and Chicken Meat Handling in Small Scale Chicken Slaughterhouses also had mentioned that animal welfare should be applied based on several basic principles which are freedom from hunger, thirst, discomfort, pain, injury, disease, fear and distress, while freedom to express normal behaviour. However, others countries Halal standard such as standard from Malaysia and Brunei do not clearly stated about actions to protect animal welfare. Hence, these actions should be harmonised among countries to ensure that all the animals are treated well and accordingly prior slaughtering to reduce the possibility of maltreatment. Slaughtering In different countries, there may have different methods for slaughtering the animals, hence a standard should be set among ASEAN countries. By having a harmonised Halal standard, the slaughtering processes can be harmonized and trades of meats between ASEAN countries or importation of meats from other countries can be facilitated. Lawful animals to be slaughters are refer to poultry and ruminant. Examples of poultry are chicken, duck, turkey, ostrich and quail of any age or sex; while ruminant permitted to slaughtered, processed and stored are cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, deer, camel and others ruminants (JAKIM, 2008). Fishes and other marine animals are excluded and any form of merciful killing methods also can be used (MUIS, 2005). Most of the Halal slaughtering guidelines in ASEAN countries are similar, and only certain points are dissimilar and those points should be harmonised to achieve better similarity and acceptance of Halal meat product among these countries. Although a ASEAN general guidelines on the preparation and handling of Halal food is available, however the slaughtering rules stated are too general, so a more specific rules should be published to ensure the practice of slaughtering will be same among ASEAN nations. On the other hand, the proper pronunciation of the phrase to recite prior the slaughtering acts on animal also slightly different among countries. Although the ASEAN general guidelines had stated as Bismillah à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, but most countries do not follow this wording. Although all the phrase are refers to similar meaning which is In the name of Allah Most Gracious, Most Merciful or In the name of Allah, Allah is the Greatest, Malaysia stated the phrase to be invoked immediately before slaughtering in Arabic , while Brunei version is , Thailand version is Bismillah Allahu Akhbar, Indonesia version is Bismillahi Allahu Akbar, and Singapore version only stated to recite Basmalah but did not stated the exact phrase wording. The Muslim slaughterman should recite the same phrase prior slaughtering, so harmonization can be should be done to achieve it. In ASEAN general guidelines, it only stated that it should severe the trachea, oesophagus, main arteries and veins of the neck region, while Malaysia, Brunei and Thailands Halal Standard are more specific and specified that slaughtering act shall begin with an incision on the neck at some point just below the glottis and after the glottis for long necked animals, then the part to severe are trachea, oesophagus, and both the carotid arteries and jugular veins to hasten the bleeding and death of the animal. It also required that bleeding be spontaneous and complete. Malaysia and Bruneis standard also displayed the slaughtering part for chicken and cattle clearly with figure. On the other hand, different term also had been use to describe the part of the animal, where trachea is known as windpipe and oesophagus is known as gullet in Singapore Standard. Singapores Standard only stated to cut the windpipe, gullet and jugular vein but didnt mentioned on the arteries that should be severed; while Indonesias Halal standard only mentioned on cutting the trachea, esophagus and two neck arteries but didnt mentioned on its veins. The Indonesias Halal standard also required that the position of the to-be-slaughtered chicken to facing the Kiblat which said to be recommended by Islamic Law, but this requirement did not found in any standard in the other ASEAN countries. Hence, parts of animals, term to define and method for slaughtering act should be defined clearly and better with figures, so the slaughterman could slaughter the animal accordingly and standardized among ASEAN countries. Stunning Stunning is a step to make the animal unconscious before the slaughtering to eliminate possible pain, discomfort and stress from slaughtering process (Chambers and Grandin, 2001). Although process of stunning is not encourage in most of the Halal Guideline, but it is permitted if it carried out within the specified condition. The ASEAN general guidelines which established on the year 1997 had stated that only electrical and mechanical stunning can be use and this stunning should not kill or injured the animal. Poultry are generally agreed to be stunned with electrical water bath stunning method among the ASEAN countries. Only Indonesia Guidelines on slaughtering had mentioned additional one type of stunning method which is manual stunner where it operated by touching the chicken head with a metal electrified with certain voltage and ampere. This type of method had not been stated in the guidelines of others countries and may not be permitted in some of these countries. The ASEAN general guidelines stated that only mechanical stunner should be use in cattle and buffaloes and stunner which do not penetrate or break the skull should be use to avoid causing any injuries to the animal and it stated that non-penetrative type (mushroom head) percussion stunner should be allowed. However, according to the decision of Malaysia Fatwa, non-penetrative captive bolt (mushroom head gun) is unlawful, but it allow electrical stunning method which of the type of head only stunner other than mechanical stunner. Pneumatic percussive stunning for cows is allowed if the skull of the animal stunned did not crack or does not causing the death of the animal. Thailands Halal Standard had state that only electrically stunning of head-only stunner which attached to both electrodes on animals head are approved. It also allowed the non-penetrative stunner (mushroom head type) for stunning of animals. However, Brunei, Indonesia and Singapore standard just stated that stunning p rocess is allowed if it does not cause animal death before slaughtered but didnt list out the specification for stunning. All the stunning method should be specified and harmonised, so cases of non-compliances to the importing countries standard will not occur during importation or exportation of the Halal meat product and the exporting product will not be banned and causes any economic loss. Mechanical Slaughtering In ASEAN general guidelines, it had stated that mechanical slaughter of chicken is permitted if certain condition can be fulfilled. However, according to Brunei Halal standard, it had totally prohibited the mechanical slaughtering of Halal animals, which means that the slaughtering act should only be done by the human slaughterer. On the other hand, Malaysia and Thailand have specified standard and condition stated in the guidelines of mechanical slaughtering of poultry, while Indonesia and Singapore do not specified terms and condition related to mechanical slaughtering in their Halal standard. According Fatwa Indonesia, they had decide that mechanical slaughtering which due to technological advancement are permitted and animal slaughtered with this method is Halal, but detail requirement are not stated. Requirements for mechanical slaughtering in Malaysia and Thailand are mostly similar to the ASEAN general guidelines requirement which required the slaughterer to clearly invoke the prayer of Bismilah before switching on the mechanical knife and the knife must be single steel blade type which is sharp, clean without contaminant and used for Halal slaughtering only. Whenever a slaughterer wants to leaves the slaughter place or replace by another slaughterer, he must stop the mechanical knife operation first and another slaughterer should again invoke the prayer before switching the knife again. The slaughtering act by mechanical knife should severe the trachea, oesophagus and both the carotid arteries and jugular veins of the poultry and any poultry which missed by the mechanical knife will be slaughter manually by hand. The other two countries which do not have specified terms and condition about mechanical slaughtering should state their requirement in the standard either they permitted or prohibited the act, so it could reduce the confusion to the slaughtering house and ease the trade between countries. Since Brunei insist to prohibited on mechanical slaughtering, it might become the trade barrier of Halal food between ASEAN nations, so this issue must be treated well with harmonisation of standard and consensus among these nations. Thoracic Stick According to Wan-Hassan (2007), he stated that delisting of Australian and New Zealand Halal meat producer by JAKIM Malaysia because of thoracic sticking had causes loss of export of these countries amounted to $53 million. However, later on a conference between Malaysia Fatwa Committee had discuss on this issue and decided that thoracic sticking method, which is the additional procedure after slaughtering of animal is permitted and the meats following this action are still considered as Halal. The decision of Fatwa Committee regarding this issue had stated several conditions to be fulfilled which are the slaughtering act must be complete before thoracic sticking where the trachea, oesophagus and two jugular veins must be severed. The animal must be died because of slaughtering, while thoracic sticking only functions to speed up the death which only can be performed 30 seconds after the slaughtering act. There are no information could be found about thoracic sticking in others ASEAN countries Halal standard, so a detailed requirements and permission on thoracic sticking should be properly stated in each countrys regulation and being harmonised among them. This action could increase the Halal status of the product, while on the same time it could reduces the economic loss of exporting countries and prevent their product banned by ASEAN countries. Labeling Standards and Requirement The ASEAN general guidelines on Halal Food did not stated any labeling requirement about Halal food product. However, by referring to the labeling standards in each countrys Halal guidelines, we had found that Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Thailand had stated standard and requirement about labeling, while Indonesia Halal standard did not mentioned the requirement for labeling. Malaysia and Brunei standard are similar, while Thailand Halal standard is slightly different because it is more detail with more specification. Generally, Malaysia and Brunei Halal standard required that the labeling material used should be non-hazardous and Halal. Then, each container should be label with name of the product, nett weight, name and address of the manufacturer, importer and distributor, list of ingredients, code number identifying date and or batch number of manufacture and expiry date with country of origin. Meat products are required to label with date of slaughter and date of processing. S ingapore Halal label guidelines is obtained from its certification terms and condition where it stated the Halal label specification such as length, width, colour, serial number, durability and material. Thailand requirement for labeling are different from the countries discussed, which required the producer to specifiy legibly the product ingredients, especially for product which contained makroh ingredient or consist of animals and fish. It also required the products which contained genetically modified foods, or fats, meat bits or derivatives of fats such as gelatin and rennin to be clearly specified on the label. The standard also required the Halal product to be labeled with nutrition fact. On the other hand, meat products are additional required to have information about animal health certificate on its labeling. Mark such as official stamp are required to proof the Halal slaughtering act and the branding ink should be stable and non-hazardous. It also stated that Halal logo should specify the organization in charge and required the certification number to be printed on product. Halal logo which is a label issued after the Halal food product had been proven of its Halal status by Halal certification authorities. By having the proper label of Halal logo, it also helps to prevent the product from being mixed or contaminated with materials which are non-Halal. Hence, by attaching a Halal logo on the label, it had proven that the product is safe and suitable to be consumed by Muslim consumer. The Halal logo on food product is more meaningful and important for Muslim consumers than ISO or other similar certification because it could indicate the wholesomeness of the food and it proven the food is ritually clean (Shafie and Othman, 2006). However, all the ASEAN countries or countries worldwide are having own national Halal logo, but national logo is not usable on another countries, so food products which schedule to be export must be special amend on their labeling to comply with the importing countries requirements. If the Halal logo with its Halal certification process could be harmonized worldwide or at least among ASEAN countries, it definitely can ease the trade of Halal food between countries and reduces the additional work load for exportation of Halal food. Although ASEAN general guidelines on Halal food handling had suggest that food products which produced according to the standard could be label with a ASEAN label and National Halal logo to proved it Halal status, but we have found out that most of the product still did not label the Halal food with this way. It may due to that certain country do not recognize and approve the Halal standard of another country. NATIONAL HALAL LOGO Laboratory Testing Laboratory testing can be use to verify that the Halal food product are free from sources which is haram and free from contamination of haram ingredient. According to the subsection of verification methods in Thailand Halal standard, the verification testing may include profile testing; physical, chemical and microbiology analysis; blood and blood products test; genetically modified products, preservatives, and additives analysis; and through inspecting of packaging and packaging materials. Halal primary concern is of the contaminant from ethyl alcohol and pork origin, so most of the laboratory testing is to verify that the food products are free from contamination by these materials. However, only Thailand Halal standard had generally stated about the guidelines for verification by laboratory testing without specify the detail methodology, while others ASEAN countries totally did not stated any requirement or guidelines about laboratory testing for verification the Halal status of the product. Currently, JAKIM in Malaysia also do not have full range of research and development unit and it need the assistance from third party to run the laboratory testing and analysis to certify the Halal status of the product (Shafie and Othman, 2006). The laboratory testing and analysis methodology may differ between different laboratory testing centres, so standardization should be conduct to obtained similar level of Halal verification nationally. Basically, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) will be used in laboratory for detection of forbidden substances, such as PCR is used to detect pork DNA, while ELISA is used to detect the pres ence of antibody or antigen in the product (Zareena, 2010). News had revealed that JAKIM (Malaysia) will build a government-owned Halal analysis laboratory by 2012 in Bandar Enstek, Nilai to analysed Halal product. This will be the first country in the global to have governmental based Halal analysis laboratory. Datuk Seri Jamil Khir Baharom, Minister in the Prime Ministers Department in Malaysia also said that after the Halal Act being legislated, JAKIM will be the only body to issue Halal certificates and private sector will not be allowed to do so anymore (Bernama, 2011). These laboratory will conduct research on food and others product to verify the Halal status, and it will be used by local and foreign food producers. If this Halal analysis laboratory by JAKIM could increase their capability, it may become the centre for Halal analysis laboratory to execute test for products from ASEAN countries for Halal product status. Hence, it may become a factor for harmonisation of the laboratory testing method among ASEAN countries. This action ma y generate a standardized requirement on laboratory testing and methodology, so laboratory testing of product for Halal certification among ASEAN countries could be equally recognised. Approaches for Harmonization Harmonization of the ASEAN Halal standard is the need for ASEAN countries; so many respective authorities had been putting effort on finding the suitable approaches to harmonize the standard and to get consensus agreement on the implementation according to the harmonized Halal standard. Reference Standard Currently, there is no single reference point for Halal standard that is accepted worldwide as the industry standard, so all the countries are now having their own national Halal standard for the certification scheme (MITI, 2006). To produce an ASEAN Halal standard that is able to be use with ease in ASEAN countries, usually it needs to base on several reference standards. The reference standard could be national Halal standard, Codex guidelines, regional Halal standard or others. Currently, a Codex guidelines which named by General Guidelines for Use of the Term Halal is available to be refers by all countries worldwide, but it barely cover and recommend on the use of Halal claims and Halal food labeling with defining of the term Halal but do not encompass all areas related to Halal food production. Generally, Codex is being known as a standard which is effective for dispute settlement, so the Codex General Standard should be develop and leverage to include more aspects of Halal foo d preparation, handling and production. On the other hand, MABIMS which is the Association of Religious Ministers of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore had also formed a Technical Committee and develop a MABIMS Guidelines for Preparation of Food and Drink for Muslims. Both Codex and MABIMS guidelines also had been act as reference to develop the ASEAN General Guideline (Ad-Hoc Working Group, 1997). ASEAN ad-hoc working group is a committee which comprise of representative from Senior Officials Meeting of the ASEAN Ministers of Agriculture and Forestry (SOM-AMAF) and religious authorities of each ASEAN member country. One of the functions of this committee is to coordinate the multinational policy and develop the ASEAN General Guidelines on the Preparation and Handling of Halal Food. This ASEAN general guideline had been published on year 1997. However, this general guidelines is too brief and do not covered every aspect, so it cannot be totally followed or enforces by the ASEAN countries during the accreditation of Halal certificate, while each of the ASEAN countries only follow to their own national guidelines. This guideline is developed almost 14 years ago and many aspects may be changed or obsolete, so it require to review or update on a regular basis such as once a year to keep improving the available guideline to a more broadening aspects covering Halal. Among ten countries in ASEAN, there are 5 countries (Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Indonesia and Singapore) which have their own national Halal standard. Malaysian Standards of MS 1500: 2009 which is a ISO compliance standard had also being use as references to create the Codex General Guidelines for Use of the Term Halal. It means that an international or regional guidelines can be produced by refers to others countries national standard. As discussed in the previous section, there are several aspects that have been found to be conflict among different national standard. This is due to different country have different interpretation on major issue, while some countries have stricter requirement than the other countries or had lower tolerance toward advancement of technology for production. However, all these national standards and regional standard should be integrated by compare and contrast on the requirements between each national standard. Then, middle ground or highest tolerance limits which are able to be achieved and agreed by each nation will be set. Hence, barrier to trade due to differ of national Halal standard can be resolved and food trade among ASEAN countries could be facilitated. This solution seems effective but actually rather difficult to implement because normally each country will have their own stand point regarding the Halal food handling and production. These actions of finding and integrating the guidelines available in ASEAN region and international are effective to be use in setting a general guideline to be used in ASEAN countries. The collection of references standard should be continue done by the ASEAN ad-hoc working group and they may also refers to the activities or effort that had been done by International Halal Integrity (IHI) Alliance or Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) nation. IHI Alliance could be a vehicle to develop, implement, maintain and harmonize the Halal standard because it is a non-profit, non-governmental and non-national body which provides a platform for its members to share information and work together for integrity of the Halal industry (Wan-Hassan, 2007). This body is further strengthen by collaboration between IHI Alliance and the Islamic Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ICCI). This ICCI-IHI collaboration had launched four modules regarding Logistics, Food Services, Slaughtering and Processin g, and Animal Welfare, while plan to launched another four new modules of Laboratory and Testing, Animal Feed, Food Processing, and Cosmetics and Toiletries to assist OIC member countries in setting up a structured domestic Halal assurance body with proper certification scheme (The Star, 2010). Their effort on this issue is due to only less than 10 out of 57 OIC member countries are having a structured Halal standard, so they are assisting by harmonize the global standard and become a reference for others countries. The ICCI-IHI collaboration had developed the standard by refers to the The International Organization for Standardization/ The International Electrotechnical Commision (ISO/IEC), Guidelines for International Standards Development, while adhering to World Trade Organisations Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement, Code of Good Practice for Standards Development (IHI, 2010). ASEAN countries can adopt or use the modules developed by ICCI-IHI collaboration as the references s tandard to product a harmonize standard to be use among the region. Setting Benchmark Standard Instead on only setting the guidelines, benchmark standard is also an important area to be set up in harmonizing the standard between ASEAN countries. A guideline without proper benchmark level will be useless. Certifying bodies uses the benchmark standard for accreditation of the Halal certificate. According Darhim (2008), benchmark standard of certification bodies can be generated according to ISO/IEC Guide 65 which related to General Requirements for Bodies Operating Product Certification Systems. It is also important to obtain the Syariah parameters that established from reputable religious authorities and work within these parameters to set the benchmark. Research and development in scientific analytical method of non-Halal component is able to assist in setting benchmarks for a particular component. The benchmark standard must be within the level which satisfied and accepted by Muslims, while achievable by the industry. Strict Halal standard which able to satisfied the Muslim p opulation, but not achievable will not bring benefits to any parties. Hence, middle ground which is the generally acceptable benchmark needs to be set to satisfy both Muslim population and industry. By having a harmonized Halal standards and certification system, Muslim consumer could be confident on the right quality of product they obtained and facilitate the regional trade. IHI Alliance is putting effort on setting a benchmark standard which is an important element in harmonization of the Halal standard among global countries. For example, the benchmark standards that need to be set are such as amount of current to stun different animals, amount of alcohol which not derived from liquor production that permitted in foods and others. These benchmark need to be set to settle any possible dispute that arise during trade of Halal product between ASEAN countries. It is not necessarily that ASEAN countries need to depend on the IHI Alliance to set the benchmark, the ASEAN ad-hoc working group which comprised of members from all ASEAN country could also putting effort in this aspect. The setting of benchmark standard should be easier to achieve within ASEAN countries compared to IHI Alliance because IHI Alliance aim to harmonize the Halal standard worldwide but ASEAN ad-hoc working group only harmonize and setting benchmark for 10 members of ASEAN countries. Ho wever, there are also people stated that a certification scheme for all is difficult to achieved because it cannot meet the needs of all certification body, if only one is required, it need to take very long time to harmonise. So, Dr Jochen Zoller, who is the President of Food Services Division at Intertek UK had suggested to set up a Halal benchmark with independent third party certification body, like British Retail Consortium which introduce Food Technical Standard to have tight control over the manufacturing process of manufacturer who get the BRC certificate. Minimum Core Standard In the research paper by Wan-Hassan (2007), he stated that Dr. Habib MNasri, Director of Quality Control at McDonalds International had suggested the establishment of Minimum Core Standard during the conference of World Halal Forum on year 2007. Minimum Core Standard can act as an approach to harmonize the Halal standard between countries, as the minimum core carry the zero tolerance for a few basic issues with addendums applied to each individual country. An addendum is a section of extra information which added to something and in this case it is added on explain the minimum core. This action may be able to set a benchmark standard among countries. In this model, the addendum will list out each country with their clearly defined requirements to approve an action as Halal, while the core will be the minimum limit and common ground where each country can follow and achieved. For example, the Minimum Core Standard will set zero tolerance for some basic issues such as pork and alcohol with addendum applied to each individual country. On the other hand, Minimum Core Standard might be used for certain controversial issue such as mechanical slaughtering for poultry, where Malaysia and Thailand permitted the mechanical slaughtering, but Brunei prohibited it. So, minimum core or common ground should be found between these countries to facilitate the trade of Halal products and the Minimum Core Standard may be used to achieve this. However, certain countries like Vietnam and Myanmar do not even have a national Halal standard, so it causes difficulty to implement the Minimum Core Standard, as in the addendum could not apply appropriately with countries without proper Halal Standard. In my opinion, those countries without proper Halal standard may follow the minimum core which is the consensus between countries with Halal standard. Industry and Government Effort To come out with a regional Halal standard for Halal product, it required the major combined effort between the industry and government authorities. By cooperation of various parties and expert on issue regarding Halal, it can enhance or catalyst the process of harmonization of the ASEAN Halal Standard (Khaleej Times Online, 2008). Before the Halal standard could be harmonize between countries, harmonize certification system should be applied in the particular nation first. An integrated development of the Halal industry is able to ensure the conformity of the industries to the stated certification standard. For example, Malaysia is planning to conduct the systemic development of the entire value chain by establishing of Halal parks. By having Halal park which dedicated to the downstream production of Halal product, the product produced would be free from non-Halal contaminant and having requisite infrastructure, adequate shared facilities with service provider located in these park. On the other hand, coordination among ministries and agencies are also required to promote and develop the Halal industry (MITI, 2006). Government and industry need to gain consensus regarding the requirement for Halal product to catalyst the harmonization and implementation of the Halal standard. Government will put effort in creating the benchmark standard for the industries to follow, while government agency especially authorities for Halal certification will enforce the standard and given Halal certificate for product which comply with the requirement in the standard. On the other hand, inter-governmental bodies such as Islamic authorities from each ASEAN country should put effort on harmonization of Halal Standard among ASEAN countries, by together facing the challenge of

State of Research on the Snowball Earth Hypothesis Essay -- essays res

State of Research on the "Snowball Earth Hypothesis" The "Snowball Earth Hypothesis" also known as the "Varangia glaciation" is a hypothesis presented in 2001 by Geologist Paul Hoffman. (Wikipedia, 2002) The hypothesis purposes that 540 million years ago during the Neoproterozic, a meter thick of ice covered the oceans and glaciers the continents for 100 million years. Albedo; when ice and snow reflect solar radiation into space, in absents of greenhouse gases, which don't exist within the atmosphere, heat therefore escapes the planet. A condition of temperature disequilibrium occurs, when freezing cold reaches a state, the climate never warms to normal, and cold freezes the hemisphere and buries it under massive glaciation. The glaciers begin when a green house gas, carbon dioxide, is depleted from erosion of silicates. Once the atmosphere is depleted of carbon dioxide, it can not absorb solar radiation. The global tempertures drops to cold and glaciation occurs, glaciation continues, temperature gradients drop further to colder, below freezing, cold is irreversible, glaciers reflect solar radiation into space. The lack of atmospheric carbon dioxide prevented greenhouse from occurring, earth is frozen until the hemisphere is totally glaciated. (Hoffman, 1998) Deglaciation can occur when volcanic eruptions saturate the atmosphere with carbon dioxide gas and resume the greenhouse effect on climate. Solar radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, rewarming the climate. A dramatic expansion of the biosphere occurred. ("Cold") History of "Snowball Earth Hypothesis" A tree toppled during a hurricane. A 700 million year old rock bed was discovered in Appalachia. The rock, diamictite consisted of basalt -size cobbles mixed with a slurry of fine silt and sand. The region consisting of Appalachian Blue Ridge range, Sharp Top mountain had once bordered a seaway cutting through Rhodina, a giant continent that included most of the worlds land. Sharp Top contained signs of tides, indicating the glacier had streached down to the sea. During this time, Virginia was 15' to 30' of the equator. Scientist wanted to know why ice was on the equator during the Neoproterozoic era. (Monastersky,1998) The team of scientists consisted of a biogeologist, geochemist, and tectonic geologist with the common goal of understanding the coevolution of life and environ... ...excursions a record of gas hydrate destabilization following Earths coldest intervals? Geology 286-287 Hoffman, Paul F.; Schrag, Daniel P. "Snowball Earth" Scientific America 21 Jan 2000 Scientific American Online. Online 31 Mar 2003 Kennedy, Martin J.; Christie - Blick, Nicholas; Prave, Anthony R. (2001) Carbon isotopic composition of Neoproterozoic glacial carbonates as a test of paleoceanographic models for Snowball Earth phenomena. Geology 1135-1138 Kennedy, Martin J.; Runneger, Bruce; Prave, Anthony R.; Hoffmann, K -H. ; Arthur, Michael A. (1998) Two or four Neoproterozoic glaciations? Geology 1059-1063 Knoll, Andy "The Planet ary Context of Biological Evolution" Lead Teams Online. NASA Astrobiology Institute 2Apr 2003 Monastersky, Richard, "Popsicle Planet, The king of all ice ages may have spurred animal evolution" 22Aug 1998 Science News Online Online. Science Service 2 Apr 2003 Simpson, Sarah "Triggering a Snowball, Did Methane addiction Set Off Earth's Greastest Ice Ages? Scientific America 16 Sept 2001 Scientific American Online. Online 1 Apr 2003 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Snowball Earth 29 Sept. 2002. Online. Wikipedia Internet 31 Mar 2002

Phi Delta Kappa

Phi Delta Kappa is an international organization for professional educators. The organization's mission is to promote quality education, with particular emphasis on publicly supported education, as essential to the development and maintenance of a democratic way of life. Each year Phi Delta Kappa conducts a Gallop Poll to see the publics view toward Public Schools. The poll tackles many different issues that are important in their own way, but the ones that interest me the, favoring or opposing a voucher system, zero tolerance polices, and school standards. One of the most controversial issues in the gallup poll is the usage of vouchers as a means of improving the quality of the public schools. It is suggested that doing so will promote competition between public and private schools and that competition will bring about improvement in the public schools. Opponents of the voucher plan believe that being able to use vouchers for religious schools will violate the separation of church and state established by the First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. In addition, parents might be forced to send their children to a school of a different religion because no other schools are available. The result of the poll show that 47% favor vouchers, 48% oppose them and 5% don†t know. I am surprised that so many people support vouchers when there is no proof that private schools improve students academic achievement. Competition between public and private schools could affect the salaries of presevice teachers and whether or not a teacher can be hired in private schools because of their religion. The best public policy is to provide parents with even more choices within the public schools, which serve over 90% of children. Legislators should concentrate on making all public schools stronger, safer, more challenging, and accountable. Public tax dollars should be spent only to improve public schools – not to assist the limited numbers of parents who choose to enroll their children in private secular or religious schools. Concern over school crime and violence has also become a huge issue. It has prompted many public schools to take various measures to reduce and prevent drugs and violence and to ensure safety in schools. Such measures include adopting zero tolerance policies. The zero tolerance policies enact mandatory expulsion for violent or drug-related student misconduct. This forces preservice teachers to change the disciplinary structure of the classroom. The poll shows that 90% of the people favor zero tolerance and 10% oppose it. I feel that zero tolerance, as explained in the reading, is a fantastic thing. But when hearing about students suspended for having aspirin or even cough drops, leaves me to wonder whether zero tolerance policies are achieving their designated purpose. The response to zero tolerance by school districts is getting out of hand. Schools need to make sure that their focus is not on blind enforcement of a rule but on actively working to detect warning signs, counsel students and punish those involved with real drugs or weapons. A third critical issue is school standards. Achievement standards in the classroom is a very important thing. 57% of people think that the standards are about right and 33% think they are too low. Another issue about standards is social promotion. Social promotion means moving children from grade to grade in order to keep them with others in their age group. 2 % favored stricter standards for social promotion and 26% opposed. I agree with the majority in both these cases. School standard are about right but it is important for preservice teachers to know and keep up with the standards. It is also important for teachers to have stricter standards for social promotion even if more students are held back. It isn†t fair to send a slacking students to the next grade to another teacher that has to re-teach the curriculum of the previous grade just for a student to two. My view on vouchers is pretty clear. People who support them believe that it will improve public school because of competition. Competition is based on an even playing field; there is no fair competition when â€Å"competitors† play by different rules. Public schools have to accept all applicants; private schools don†t. Private schools are not required to provide transportation, special education, bilingual education, free and reduced lunches, and many other programs that public schools provide. I agree with zero tolerance but they are taking it too far. I can also understand the schools' rationale for zero tolerance. They are concerned about student safety and want to project the image that they are being tough on drugs and violence, but use some common sense. When it comes to the standards of student achievement I agree with the majority of the people polled, but many of the issues of the Phi Delta Kappa Gallup Poll I disagreed with because I feel that the people being polled are uneducated in the subject and don†t know how their opinion can affect schools.

Evaluate the Organization’s Involvement and Responsibility

Motivation and Empowerment Evelyn Hamilton, Aaron Pobleh and Regina Taylor CJA/474: Managing Criminal Justice Personnel November 26, 2012 Instructor: Pam McIver The term motivation and empowerment is a universal concept that is hoped to work towards the good of any organization. Motivation and empowerment does not come from rewards to employees but instead, recognition, responsibility and advancement. Leaders who are effective in motivating and empowering their staff have acquired a great achievement, which can increase efficiency, and self development of skills and abilities.When employers are concerned about the welfare and needs of their staff, this provides trust among staff. The purpose of this paper is to compare motivation and empowerment, define the components of empowerment, analyze the implications of empowerment and delegation in a criminal justice organization and analyze the role of trust in personnel issues. Compare motivation and empowerment Motivation and empowerment are two words that are very popular in every workplace. Generally when one mention motivation, everyone would think it is what employer gives their employees, unfortunately, motivation in the workplace goes way far beyond that.Motivating your employees gives them authority to do more work for you and do it better. According to businessdictionary. com, motivation is both internal and external factors which desire and energize people to become committed to a job, role, or subject, or to strive to reach a goal. While empowerment is management practices which allow the sharing of information, power, and rewards with employees so that they can take initiative, and make decision to solve problems, and improve themselves as well as enhance their performance (www. usinessdictionary. com). Everyone need to feel empowered regarding their work ethic on the job or being assertive in life challenges and changes, but without the key elements of self-motivation, assertiveness and the ability to ma ke good decision how would they be able to motivate others. Mangers of an organization should show through their behavior and actions how provide the necessary skills to be productive and efficient. This in turn will produce happier employees. Define the components of empowermentIn order to be an effective leader a person would need to be empowering by those below them and therefore allow them to take initiative on their own. A leader that has poor management skill fails to empower anyone underneath him. For example, an office manager as well as a beginner officer within the work place or in the field must feel good about performing on their own and not feeling they will be overly scrutinized regarding their errors. They must not fear the aftermaths or punishments for taking individual decision making.When this happens, employees began to shun management for fear always doing something wrong. Employers should provide positive communication to their staff (National Empowerment Center ). There was a research designed to examine the concept word of empowerment in this programs sponsored by multiple examiner of the criminal justice it was first anticipated to create a working definition. After research the â€Å"elements of empowerment were identified, including access to information, ability to make choices, assertiveness, and self-esteem. Empowerment has both an individual and a group dimension (Tom Roger, 2011).This research studied participants in self-help programs for people with no self-motivation and the need for encouragement. At the beginning of the study,† it was stated numerous of the individuals involved empower in their research. It’s obviously the important theory concerning the essential to defining meaning of empowerment as part of the development. Although it â€Å"recognized that empowerment had elements in common with such concepts as self-esteem and self-efficacy, these concepts did not fully capture what was considered a distinc tiveness about empowerment† (Tom Roger, 2011).In an earlier â€Å"debates empowerment was† considered â€Å"complex, multidimensional concept, and that it described a process rather than an event†. It was never â€Å"believe that an individual had to display every quality on the list in order to be considered† empowered (Tom Roger, 2011). Analyze the implications of empowerment and delegation in a criminal justice organization Today the style and practices of police leadership is changing rapidly. The term shared leadership is one being used by many police chiefs all across the country.They believe that this approach to management by sharing power and influence to individuals within the organization, who are otherwise hierarchical unequal, will view their leadership as a leadership which looks at the broader aspect of giving authority to employees which will allow them to make decisions, solve problems, and be held accountable for their actions (Mussellwhi te, 2007). Whenever officers are empowered they become dedicated to their jobs. Because they are given the skills, resources, authority, opportunity to be motivated and committed to their jobs, roles, or duties.Something which is refers to as being dedicated. Employees empowerment in a police department which delegate assignments, allow officers to take responsibility of their jobs results. It also allows them to make decisions about it. When officers are delegated with responsibilities, it makes them think in decision making, take control, behave, and take actions responsively, because they know that they will be held accountable for their actions. Police departments that apply employee empowerment create an environment in which their officers are empowered, productive and are happy in their jobs.Such police departments do not limit their employees to information (Heathfield, 2012). Analyze the role of trust in personnel issues. The role of trust in personnel issues involves how em ployees relate and respond to their employer. For example, if an employer is more concerned about getting the job done employees will pick up on that and will respond to their employer in a negative way. But when employers’ show that they truly care about their employee’s well being they will respond in a positive way. It would be in the organizations best interest for employers to take time to get to know their employees.Employers should empower their staff by allowing them to make important decisions in reference to their day to day duties. This will cause employees to respect their employers which will also lead to trust. When employees trust and respect the organization they will do the best possible work they are capable of doing. This in turn will lead to accountability on the part of the employee (Mussellwhite, 2007). When an employer gains the trust of their staff, they will know how to motivate each individual person for the best outcome of the organization.Em ployees understand that no organization is a perfect organization. When employees know and feel important to the organization, respect and trust will deepen. Respect and trust will take an organization to higher creativity and increased efficiency (Forbes. com, 2009). Positive communication is the cornerstone to empowerment and trust within an organization. When employers take the time to consider their staff opinions and feedback on daily operations, this can cause higher productivity and increase efficiently. Employers should share information about the organization with their staff.This provides for a clear picture of how the organization is progressing or not progressing. This also produces trust among employees because employers trust their staff (Mussellwhite, 2007). Conclusion In conclusion, this paper compared motivation and empowerment, defined the components of empowerment, analyzed the implications of empowerment and delegation in a criminal justice organization and analy zed the role of trust in personnel issues. Motivation and empowerment is about providing production and management guidelines to employees and then allows them to operate in an independent manner.Empowerment and delegation within the criminal justice system involves sharing power and influence to individuals within the organization, who are otherwise hierarchical unequal. This leadership looks at the broader aspect of giving authority to employees which will allow them to make decisions, solve problems, and be held accountable for their actions. The components of empowerment are about communication, feedback and productivity. Employees should be trained properly so that trust is gained through empowerment.A motivated and empowered employee will respect and trust the organization which will lead to accountability and responsibility. Leaders can gain great achievement when they effectively motivate and empower their staff into self development of skills and abilities. References Chris Musselwhite, 2007. Inc. Motivation=Empowerment; retrieved on November 22, 2012 from www. inc. com/resources/leadership/articles/20070801 Employees Empowerment: How to Empower employees. Retrieved on November 22, 2012 from www. humanresources. about. com/od/employeeempowerment Empowerment in the Workplace ttp://ezinearticles. com/? Empowerment-in-the-Workplace&id=6541445 Make sure your employees trust you or else. Forbes. com 2009. Retrieved from http://www. forbes. com/2009/03/23/trust-respect-employees-leadership-managing-blanchard. html. National Empowerment Center Article www. power2u. org/articles/empowerment/workingdef. html Susan Heathfield. 2012. What is Empowerment; Retrieved on November 22, 2012 from www. businessdictionary. com/definition/empowerment. html What is Motivation; Retrieved on November 22, 2012 from www. Businessdictionary. com/definition/motivation. html

Suicide In College Essays

Suicide In College Essays Suicide In College Essay Suicide In College Essay College is a fun exciting time in a person’s life.   It is a new adventure filled with opportunities.   Unfortunately, when people get there they sometimes discover it was not all they had anticipated it to be.   Although college can be a great learning experience, it is also something very different than what most people are used to.   It is the first time living away from parents and can lead to frustration, loneliness, depression, overindulgence, and some mental illnesses become apparent in college years.   In most cases the students either get over the problem, or drop out of school, in some cases; however these problems lead to suicide.   â€Å"Suicide is the third leading cause of death in 15 – 24 year† (AFSP).   â€Å"It is the second leading cause of death in college students† (Naval Academy).   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The person who feels extreme emotional pain is the type of person who may consider suicide† (Kolehmainen, 14).Frustration and loneliness are two of the most common problems experienced when a person is attempting to adjust to college.   For most students this is the first move away from home.   They discover they have to do their own laundry, get themselves up on time, and clean up after themselves.   This can lead to confusion and frustration.   The loneliness sets in when they realize they are miles away from friends and family.   Both of these problems are minor psychological issues and are usually relieved within the first few weeks as the person makes new friends and adjusts to college life.   If they are unable to adjust, the problems can become much worse and usually lead to depression.Depression has two causes one of which is a problem in the brain; the other is caused by bad situations in a person’s life.   Either cause can lead to suicide.   Clinical depression (chemical problems inside the brain) can be treated effectively with medication, once it has been diagnosed.   T he situational depression is one of the leading factors in suicide. This is the kind that loneliness can lead to it happens when something happens in a persons life to make them very sad for an extended period of time.   It can be caused by a beak-up, loss of a loved one, or loneliness or many other reasons. It is quite common in college students, when they realize they aren’t as popular as they were in high school, they can not keep their grades up, or they miss the people they left behind. Some signs of depression include crying, nightmares, withdrawal from friends and family, feelings of hopelessness, not eating, weight changes, anger, lack of concentration, or decreased energy (Horn, 109).   When someone shows any of these symptoms they need to get help.As college is often when people move away from their parents, this freedom often leads to parties, drinking, and sometimes trying illicit drugs.   Some of these things if taken in excess can alter thoughts.   Somet imes they alter the thoughts to make them consider suicide.   These thoughts would often not be acted on if the person was not under the influence of the drugs.   Alcohol is a depressant and thus would increase any depressed thoughts and could be an influence on a student already thinking about suicide. â€Å"Drugs and alcohol reduce inhibitions and increase risk taking behavior, thus reinforcing whatever tendencies towards self destruction people poses† (Rivera).Some college students have mental disorders which cause thoughts of suicide and eventually lead them to act on it.   Schizophrenia is one mental illness that first appears in late teenage years and college. This illness causes people to hear voices at times and have delusions that someone is trying to cause them harm. These thoughts can sometimes manifest as thoughts of suicide.   There are a number of other illnesses such as bi-polar disorder that if properly treated can be managed, but these illnesses are s ometimes not discovered, until the person has acted on the thoughts of suicide.Suicide is considered a permanent solution to a temporary problem. â€Å"Nearly 1,100 suicides are projected to occur on college campuses this year† (Naval Academy).   This indicates there is a problem on college campuses.   Many people, who are inclined to commit suicide, give indications before they actually act on these problems.   Friends and family need to be aware of the signs, which are similar to those of depression.   When people turn eighteen they are not automatically ready to go out into the world alone.   Many are ready, but obviously many are not.   Students getting ready to go to college need to be educated on the options and support available to them.   High school guidance counselors need to prepare young people for what they need to expect in college.   They need to understand it is a big change from high school and the changes are not always good.   Parents need to prepare students for the laundry and cleaning up after themselves as well as for the adjustment to being responsible for oneself.   The more prepared students are, when they enter college, the better they will be able to handle the challenges college presents.   There is no way to prevent suicide altogether, but preparation and watching for signs will hopefully save a number of them.American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, (2007), Retrieved June 4, 2007 from,AFSP: Facts and Figures: National StatisticsHorn, Wade F. and Keough, C. New Teen Book, (1999) Des Moines, Iowa:Better Homes and Gardens BooksKolehmainen, Janet, and Handerk, S. Teen Suicide,(1986) Minneapolis:Lerner PublicationsRivera, Roberto, â€Å"Moods and Worldviews: Suicide on Campus†, Boundless Webzine,Retrieved June 11, 2007 from boundless.org/2000/features/a0000271.htmlUnited States Naval Academy, College and Suicide- Just the facts, RetrievedJune 11, 2007 from, MDC Suicide College Facts

The Genius of Julius Caesar

The Genius of Julius Caesar Free Online Research Papers In terms of political and military genius, surely none can compare to the brilliance of Gaius Julius Caesar. With glowing political ambition and the military genius needed to see it realised, Caesar revolutionalised the Roman republic through his ability to manipulate the Cursus Honorum, his formation and manipulation of the First Triumvirate and his triumphant military conquests in Gaul; partially attributed to his inspirational leadership. All these successes lead to the conclusion that Gaius Julius Caesar truly was, to a large extent, a political and military genius. Born into a traditional, though not wealthy, Patrician family, Caesar was influenced to achieve political success from a young age. On the one side, his family had not seen success for generations; his father making only Praetor. This gave Caesar some political guidance while filling him with ambition to succeed for family honour. On the other side however, he was related by law to Marius. Marius held consular position six years in a row and was involved in civil war with Sulla. This influence gave Caesar the thought of using illegal force to achieve his ends, and the knowledge that political success could be achieved through military accomplishments. Both these influences were to guide him in his future military and political successes. Julius Caesar showed he was able to achieve political success from a young age. At nineteen, he openly defied Sulla, refusing to divorce his wife. This was so abrasive it caused Sulla himself to comment â€Å"There are many Marius’ in this fellow Caesar† (Suetonius, 1979, p.1). Caesar showed he had the characteristics to succeed from the moment he enrolled in the army, aged twenty. His military brilliance was such that he was awarded the civic crown, the highest honour granted to a soldier. On the way to Rhodes, he was captured by pirates. It was here his exceptional abilities were first shown. Not in the least intimidated, Caesar according to Suetonius â€Å"†¦had often smilingly sworn, while still in their power, that he would soon capture and crucify them; and that is exactly what he did† (Suetonius, 1979. p.15). This act was unprecedented for a private citizen, and showed his ability to use initiative and force to gain or enforce power. It also showed he had the determination, ambition and arrogance needed to achieve political and military glory. His political genius can be easily recognised through his exploitation of the Cursus Honorum. Caesar used each position he held intelligently to further his popularity, which he correctly saw as the key to a successful political career. When elected as Quaesitor in 63BC, he went to the Po River and gained clientela by exploiting the discontent felt there due to lack of citizenship. In 65BC, when elected as Aedile, he held lavish games and amazing displays to please the crowd, spending money ‘recklessly’. He realised that huge debts could be cleared as his power grew, but he needed popularity with the people to gain power. This popularity led to his election as Pro-Praetor in 61BC. In this office he held campaigns in Spain, where he had military successes which cleared his debts, and gave him the military reputation needed to achieve further political power. It is obvious to conclude that such brilliant exploitation of each of his offices in the Cursus Honorum places him under the umbrella of ‘political genius’. His most influential, if not clever, political endeavour was his formation and manipulation of the First Triumvirate. To reach consular position and further his political career, Caesar needed to make powerful and carefully planned alliances. He approached Pompey and Crassus, two of the most powerful men in Rome. Together they held influence over the entire state. Plutarch comments: â€Å"A city, like a ship, can gain stability from opposed forces, which together prevent it from rocking one way or another; but now these forces were united into one and there was nothing to stop its movement of violent part interest from overthrowing everything† (Plutarch, 1974, p.206). While Pompey and Crassus had thought only of the short term benefits, Caesar had carefully considered this alliance, and how he could manipulate it, for his long term personal gain. Through the triumvirate he had himself elected as consul. He then had his two greatest political adversaries, Cato and Cicero, removed from Rome. To do this he had a tribune elected through the power of the Triumvirate, who then had Cicero exiled and Cato sent to Crete as provincial governor. He then further used their powers to be given, at the conclusion of his consulship, a decent province, which the Senate was attempting to thwart. Caesar was aware that a good province would be necessary if he was to achieve military greatness, and thus extend his political career. Throughout his Pro-Consulship he used the Triumvirate to look after his interests back in Rome. Clearly, the insight and subtle cleverness in the formation and manipulation of the First Triumvirate adds weight to the claim of ‘politic al genius.’ His campaigns in Gaul are where his true military genius can be clearly seen. In Gaul, Caesar accomplished three great military feats. Firstly, he bridged the Rhine River. This proved to his German opposition that he was capable of anything, and greatly increased his armies’ mobility. Such a technological feat was unprecedented. Secondly, Caesar attacked Briton. This caused excitement in Rome as no Roman had ever had ever raided that far north before. The prestige and reputation Caesar gained was far more valuable then the monetary funds plundered. Florus believes â€Å"Caesar was satisfied with what he had done – he was after all only out to acquire a reputation, not a province†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Williams, 1996, p.187). This shows how Caesar cleverly used his military feats to extend his political career. Thirdly, he produced the greatest siege ever attempted. Caesar had the Gaulish army, united under Vercingtorix, surrounded on an unassailable hill in Alesia. Aware that reinforcements were marching behind him, Caesar, in a stroke of brilliance, built two Forts, to protect himself in front and behind. To do this he had two trenches dug on both sides, one filled with water. He then had an array of spikes, holes, stakes and obstacles implemented in front of them to impede the armies further. At the conclusion of a dirty battle, Caesar was victor, having defeated two armies who together outnumbered him five men to one. The incredible reputation that these events gained for Caesar, as well as the money and land that Caesar gained personally and for the state, proves without a doubt that Caesar planned every event to impress and to contribute to his political career. These events proved that Caesar was undoubtedly a military genius. His military genius extends further, to his brilliance as a general. His successes in battle are largely a result of his men’s loyalty and adoration of him. Plutarch voices the opinion that â€Å"His ability to secure the affection of his men, and to get the best out of them was remarkable†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Plutarch, p. 59). His brilliance as a leader further backs the title of ‘military genius’. In conclusion, such deep insight into the exploitation of each political position he held, such thought and cleverness in the formation and manipulation of the First Triumvirate, his stunning military exploits in Gaul and brilliance as a leader seamlessly portray a man who can be, to a large extent, described as a ‘political and military genius’. If ever a man lived who was deserved of so prestigious a title, Gaius Julius Caesar would be that man. Research Papers on The Genius of Julius CaesarAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Quebec and CanadaBringing Democracy to AfricaAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropePETSTEL analysis of India19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationWhere Wild and West MeetCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite Religion

Quantitative easing - Emphasis

Quantitative easing Quantitative easing Look out for the latest innocent-sounding financial buzz-phrase that hides some very big news indeed. This one sounds more benign than sub-prime loans. Yet its effects could be just as far reaching, if not more so. That phrase is quantitative easing. It may sound like the lesson you forgot in physics class, as Gerard Baker of The Times has put it. But its actually what governments do when theyve run out of options. It means, essentially, printing more money. Its what the Japanese central bank did when its economy went belly-up in 2001. (It had already driven interest rates close to zero.) As we write, UK business secretary Lord Mandelson is strongly denying that quantitative easing is even on the agenda. But the US Federal Reserve has already decided to do it, in order to buy up long-term debt. The theory is this lowers the interest rates on these assets, so that loans in general become cheaper and money starts to move around the economy again. A cynic might say that the jargon is there to hide whats really going on, just as collateral damage sounds better than killing innocent civilians. Whether thats true or not, youre likely to hear it more and more soon: when we searched on Google for the (exact) phrase we got well over three hundred thousand results.

Spartan Warriors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spartan Warriors - Essay Example Spartan warriors' military fitness, as mentioned began specifically at birth. One of the immediate tests was when the mother of the child literally bathed in wine. This test already claimed its effectiveness in selecting who were the children fitted to be warriors through their survival (Schrader 2007). The test though didn't end there. Upon the survival of the child from the test, the decision about the child's future will be subject under the elders' judgment, if the child was to be reared as warrior or not. A child who survived but had founded with defective or weak was also considered useless. This child will be subject under the abandonment in the wild slopes of Mount Taygetos or Apothethae. The place was already known as a place of rejection (Schrader 2007). This practice was believed by the Spartans as way to preserve and maintain the high physical standard in their race. Spartan warriors were expected in absoluteness regarding physical strength and capability (Stark 1997). Another Spartan custom to eliminate the weak in their race was the throwing into a pit of the defective child. A cloak and nothing else would be the only clothing that provided for boys 12 years of age and below, was also a test for their physical health that was essential for fitness. Another test for their living condition was through hunger. ... Growing up in Spartan society was tougher for the Spartan boys than the girls. Officials assembled the young boys for primary fighting orientation. Spartan boys were expected to be grouped by age. They would then fight with each other, and the toughest boy would be the leader. (Connoly 1979) Another test for their living condition was through hunger. Spartan boys were being purposely underfed. This condition was to test them their hunting skills, up to the extent of motivating them to steal purposely the food in the supplies. Along with the test of hunger, they were also commanded to sleep in the bare ground. In fact, during the earliest days of Sparta, a citizen's life was completely and strictly submitted under the Spartan state. One of the moral trainings of Spartan warriors was the obedience to their laws (Connoly 1979). At this early stage, Spartan boys were already being exposed in the ruthlessness of killing. This was to set them prepared for the future military life that awaits them. They were being taught handling of arms and armor. They were also encouraged to develop their own guile and savage skill necessary for fighting. They were even enforced to experience actual murdering and slaughtering once they were being sent to hunt for declining slaves. Strict discipline in fighting was also enforced to them. (Paparykarious 2000) During boyhood, the young citizen was required to leave home for military boarding school. It was in their law that young Spartan was required to serve in the army, from age seven up to thirty years of age (Connoly 1979). In the army, their education put emphasis on physical toughness, faithful in military ranks, and absolute obedience to orders. They are identified as hoplite or a

Event-Related Potential Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Event-Related Potential - Essay Example Often, the executive functions are invoked when it is necessary to override responses that may otherwise be automatically elicited by stimuli in the external environment. It forecasts with a potentially rewarding stimulus, such as a tasty piece of chocolate cake, the automatic response might be to take a bite. The neural mechanisms by which the executive functions are implemented is a topic of ongoing debate in the field of cognitive neuroscience.Experimental psychologists and neuroscientists have discovered many different stimuli. The timing of these responses is thought to provide a measure of the timing of the brain's communication or time of information processing. Due to the consistency of the external response to novel stimuli, a brain-computer interface can be constructed which relies on it by arranging many signals in a grid, randomly STUDIES AND RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT IN EVENT RELATED POTENTIALS The ongoing electroencephalogram (EEG) provides a satisfactory scale for accessing temporal evolution of the brain activity associated with cognitive processes in health and disease. However, momentary changes in brain activity, as reflected in EEG, are rarely exploited due to lack of analytical tools and methodology. The electrodes covering the parietal lobe typically measure the P300 signal most strongly. The presence, magnitude, topography and time of this signal are often used as metrics of cognitive function in decision-making processes. While the neural substrates of this ERP remain hazy, the reproducibility of this signal makes it a common choice for psychological tests in both the clinic and the laboratory. Although the EEG... This essay stresses that the ongoing electroencephalogram (EEG) provides a satisfactory scale for accessing temporal evolution of the brain activity associated with cognitive processes in health and disease. However, momentary changes in brain activity, as reflected in EEG, are rarely exploited due to lack of analytical tools and methodology. The electrodes covering the parietal lobe typically measure the P300 signal most strongly. The presence, magnitude, topography and time of this signal are often used as metrics of cognitive function in decision-making processes. While the neural substrates of this ERP remain hazy, the reproducibility of this signal makes it a common choice for psychological tests in both the clinic and the laboratory. This paper declares that the EEG signal is most strongly acquired around the parietal electrodes, interactions involving the frontal and temporal regions as well as several deep brain loci have been suggested. These components respond individually to different stimuli, and it has been suggested that the P300 originates from stimulus-driven frontal attention mechanisms during task processing. The P300 signal is an aggregate recording from a great many neurons In practice, the P300 waveform must be evoked using a stimulus delivered by one of the sensory modalities. One typical procedure is the 'oddball' paradigm, whereby a target stimulus is presented amongst more frequent standard background stimuli. A distracter stimulus may also be used to ensure that the response is due to the target rather than the change from a background pattern.

Arts Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Arts Administration - Essay Example Organizations are feeling the need to address the problem of the deficit brought about by the problems in the economy (Bonser, 2005). Arts administrators have been very much needed the past few years in various profit and non-profit organizations dedicated to the culture and the arts. This only proves that the society and the economy that caters to arts are already embracing the business component of their endeavors (Bonser, 2005). Choosing arts administration as a field of study can open up to various possibilities in the arts industry. It also promises a big contribution to the society. Arts administrators, dedicated and well-trained, are expected to help the arts institutions to confront the financial situation and organizational limits and to cater to the interests and needs of the clients and enthusiasts. At the same time, the arts administrators are also expected to have the understanding of what counts in the artistic community (Bonser, 2005). In the United States alone, there are various schools that offer Arts Administration program. These schools and universities offer considerable courses for their students and they have very comprehensive curriculum. These institutions are known for their strong commitment in developing the capabilities and skills of the students, thereby providing a strong support to the current state and the future of the arts community (Bonser, 2005). Fashion Institute of Technology The Fashion Institute of Technology or FIT is located in New York. The school is based in the middle of the city, just perfect for the institute which provides a link between creativity and commerce. It provides academic programs for students who want a career in the arts industry with at least 30 fields to choose from. The courses vary from the Master's to Bachelor's and Associate's Degree. The programs vary. There is the credit certificate program, online course and international programs (FIT, 2006). FIT recognizes the need to go beyond instilling among the students a good background in history of the arts. This is why a number of the programs FIT offers today also teach skills in technology and business. The Fashion Institute of Technology has Associate Degree and Bachelor of Science Degree Programs that have a comprehensive curriculum, covering a specific arts field and the other disciplines required in management for that specific field. Some of these programs are the Fashion Merchandising Management, Production Management and Visual Management. They incorporate the significant resources of the school in the field of Arts and Design, Liberal Arts, and Business and Technology. Through this, school aims to be able to develop the communication and business skills among the students (FIT, 2006). FIT also offers Arts Administration in its Graduate Program in Art Market: Principles and Practice. This was formerly known as the Gallery and Retail Art Administration. It prepares its students for careers in art galleries, auction houses, art market services or public art administration. There are classes in art history and history of collecting. There are also courses tackling practical disciplines like art law, professional ethics, design and management of galleries, business and marketing. Applicants for the graduate program must

4 Ps of Marketing Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

4 Ps of Marketing - Term Paper Example The reason behind the success of business includes a long process where the achievement of success depends on marketing. The success associated with the marketing process depends upon various marketing strategies and these marketing strategies deal with 4 Ps of marketing. Thus, the implementation of marketing strategies in an appropriate manner is very important in order to achieve success by an organization. In other words, the marketing mix is the combination of all the marketing plans made by an organization (Belohlavek, 2008). Each of these four P’s is very important factors for an organization in order to create such a marketing mix which will easily attract customers towards the organization. It helps in determining the profit potential of an organization. Product means the goods/services which are offered to the customers by an organization. Apart from the offering of the physical product, there are various other elements associated with the product which helps in attra cting the customers. It can be the packaging of the product, any additional feature in the product etc. In the case of service product, it is the quality of services, the facilities provided to the customers, etc which help to attract the customers towards the organization. ...In a similar way, basic products which are used regularly should be positioned targeting the price conscious customers. Some of the important aspects associated with the products are design, warranties, brand name, product range, etc. Customer research is one of the key elements while creating an effective marketing mix. The organization’s knowledge about the needs and demands of the target market as well as about the competitors will help it to offer the product that will be appealing to the customers and will avoid various mistakes. Addition of a new product in the business always includes an acceptable amount of risk/return exchange. For example- If the company is very good, with a high brand name, t hen providing services on time is the most important part of the product bundle.

The American food stamp program should continue and the World Food Term Paper

The American food stamp program should continue and the World Food Program should continue supporting and funding it - Term Paper Example erly people or the disabled.   In contrast with other means-tested initiatives that are specific to certain groups of low-income families/individuals, almost all low-income households can benefit from the program. This paper will attempt to explore and divulge the benefits of the program and why it deserves to be funded long-term; all this while the aim will be to defend and support the enthymeme that has been stated above. 1.0 Introduction According to Ohls & Beebout (2009), the food stamp program is an initiative of the American government that was initiated in 1989. Since then it has become a central component of America’s public assistance system that serves over 30 million participants of low income families and has outlays of over $25 billion. It is primarily meant to offer some form of assistance to low income families and low income households on the sole basis that they require financial aid to have meals and eat irrespective of age, race, creed, sex and disability (Ohls & Beebout, 2009). It is also viewed as the cornerstone of almost all nutrition aid programs initiated by the federal government, as well as being the core line of defense against poor nutrition, hunger and if necessary, starvation. The program helps s lower-income families acquire a variety of food products at retail (Slomba, 2008). It is also referred to (officially) as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and there are two key aspects that are examined in order to determine one’s eligibility. These are assets and income (Ronald, 2007). The other criterion applied is the gross income redline, which is set at a certain percentage of the poverty level (usually 130%). In 2009, federal taxpayers contributed $56 billion towards the program, more than three times the $18... According to the research findings the food stamp program is an initiative of the American government that was initiated in 1989. Since then it has become a central component of America’s public assistance system that serves over 30 million participants of low income families and has outlays of over $25 billion. It is primarily meant to offer some form of assistance to low income families and low income households on the sole basis that they require financial aid to have meals and eat irrespective of age, race, creed, sex and disability. It is also viewed as the cornerstone of almost all nutrition aid programs initiated by the federal government, as well as being the core line of defense against poor nutrition, hunger and if necessary, starvation. The program helps s lower-income families acquire a variety of food products at retail. It is also referred to (officially) as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and there are two key aspects that are examined in o rder to determine one’s eligibility. These are assets and income. The other criterion applied is the gross income redline, which is set at a certain percentage of the poverty level (usually 130%). In 2009, federal taxpayers contributed $56 billion towards the program, more than three times the $18 billion it cost them in 2000. Also in 2009, a household of four was guaranteed a maximum monthly stipend of $668. Currently, the number of beneficiaries is almost 30 million, marking a huge rise since the 17 million recorded in the year 2000.

Revolution failure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Revolution failure - Research Paper Example The deep analysis of the situation revealed a dark fact that the claims of societal equality and justice are superficial in nature and therefore, humans are still far away from becoming a unified race (Fuente, 2000). The slogan of equality and social justice was raised in order to help the Multinationals in the process of gaining entrance in the developing areas of the world. The rich environment of the developing nations attracted the eyes of the industrialists and they planned a fiscal invasion of the countries. The business professionals entered and promised to raise living standards of the societies. In response, the local governments reacted favorably and allowed the companies to start their activities. The companies used indigenous natural and manmade resources and destroyed the local industries with the help of using dumping. At the end of each year, the management repatriated a major chunk of profit into the home economy and because of this reason, it can be established that developed nations in the name of equality created more of it in an economic sense. The case of Cuba is no different in this regard, as American organizations entered into the Cuban economy few decades ago and pledged that they will work for the holistic development of the local system but what they did in reality was the destruction of local infrastructure and as a result, Cuba’s identity as a nation deteriorated. The social scientists are of the view that Cuba is just another name for national subsidiary of America (The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2011). The American jails operating in the territory of Cuba is presented as the most significant proof of the abovementioned argument. The social equality and justice are profoundly considered as the byproducts of economic development. The economic development leads to increasing investment in education because economy’s need for skilled labor increases and therefore, governments are compelled to increase depl oyment of financial resources in the industry of human capital development. The rise in educational activities then stimulates educated and civilized behavior in the community. The fiscal development and growth of the troubled economy was hindered purposely by adjacent superpower. Every country in the world is known to operate with a secret and hidden agenda of increasing its influence on near geographical areas. In the past, the goal of increasing influence on other countries was accomplished by military incursions and conflicts. The development of nuclear and chemical weapons dulled the productivity of armed conflicts and nowadays the great nations of the globe find cultural, economic and societal invasion more attractive and suitable to their needs. This option is much less bloody whereas, its effectiveness is remarkable to say the least. The people of developing nations are being enslaved in masses every year and they are not aware of the fact. The Americanization is notably gro wing in all parts of the world. The Cuban culture has almost submerged and the newcomer would fail to differentiate Cuba from America (Buscaglia-Salgado, 2002). The Indian society on the other hand, is exhibiting early signs of Americanization. Unfortunately, all of the developing nations are implementing negatives of American culture in the local setting. The American

The American food stamp program should continue and the World Food Term Paper

The American food stamp program should continue and the World Food Program should continue supporting and funding it - Term Paper Example erly people or the disabled.   In contrast with other means-tested initiatives that are specific to certain groups of low-income families/individuals, almost all low-income households can benefit from the program. This paper will attempt to explore and divulge the benefits of the program and why it deserves to be funded long-term; all this while the aim will be to defend and support the enthymeme that has been stated above. 1.0 Introduction According to Ohls & Beebout (2009), the food stamp program is an initiative of the American government that was initiated in 1989. Since then it has become a central component of America’s public assistance system that serves over 30 million participants of low income families and has outlays of over $25 billion. It is primarily meant to offer some form of assistance to low income families and low income households on the sole basis that they require financial aid to have meals and eat irrespective of age, race, creed, sex and disability (Ohls & Beebout, 2009). It is also viewed as the cornerstone of almost all nutrition aid programs initiated by the federal government, as well as being the core line of defense against poor nutrition, hunger and if necessary, starvation. The program helps s lower-income families acquire a variety of food products at retail (Slomba, 2008). It is also referred to (officially) as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and there are two key aspects that are examined in order to determine one’s eligibility. These are assets and income (Ronald, 2007). The other criterion applied is the gross income redline, which is set at a certain percentage of the poverty level (usually 130%). In 2009, federal taxpayers contributed $56 billion towards the program, more than three times the $18... According to the research findings the food stamp program is an initiative of the American government that was initiated in 1989. Since then it has become a central component of America’s public assistance system that serves over 30 million participants of low income families and has outlays of over $25 billion. It is primarily meant to offer some form of assistance to low income families and low income households on the sole basis that they require financial aid to have meals and eat irrespective of age, race, creed, sex and disability. It is also viewed as the cornerstone of almost all nutrition aid programs initiated by the federal government, as well as being the core line of defense against poor nutrition, hunger and if necessary, starvation. The program helps s lower-income families acquire a variety of food products at retail. It is also referred to (officially) as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and there are two key aspects that are examined in o rder to determine one’s eligibility. These are assets and income. The other criterion applied is the gross income redline, which is set at a certain percentage of the poverty level (usually 130%). In 2009, federal taxpayers contributed $56 billion towards the program, more than three times the $18 billion it cost them in 2000. Also in 2009, a household of four was guaranteed a maximum monthly stipend of $668. Currently, the number of beneficiaries is almost 30 million, marking a huge rise since the 17 million recorded in the year 2000.

Employment Law and Compliance Plan Essay Example for Free

Employment Law and Compliance Plan Essay Atwood and Allen Consulting Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Recruitment and Selection Strategies Recommendations Atwood and Allen Consulting Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Recruitment and Selection Strategies Recommendations The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company has been established to providetransportation to public. The first step is recruitment and selection of prospective new employees that will organize and man the business. The Human Resource Department must explore resources to find right candidates. Recruitment and selection team must addressing the job responsibilities and scope of work of each new position. The staffing process is normally divided into recruitment phase and the selection phase. Recruitment is the searching and attracting of job seekers and the selection is the part job seekers are chosen to get the offer to fill the vacant position. The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company first step is planning human resource. Develop policies, system, procedure and goal setting and method of performance appraisal. Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company interviews should have standard company operating procedures and recruitment policies that take care of the recruitment process. These policy, systems, procedures were prepared and approved by Bradley Stonefield. It will be reviewed yearly to ensure compliance to new laws and new business environment or requirement. The Human Resource will periodically review and assess the current and futurehuman resource requirements.The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company formal recruitment process begins when Bradley Stonefield decide or announce the start of the operation of his business. Look more:Â  google recruiting process essay Bradley Stonefield makes that decision because he will have to finance the whole endeavor or business. HR staff initiates the request and documentation. The recruitment request will be evaluated by Bradley Stonefield. He will take several factors in consideration in making his evaluation together with his HR staff. Among the factors he will have to consider are postings, the requirements, the financial constraint, and so forth. Once he approved the recruitment process it will be a go to implement. The job description and person specification is to be prepared by HR staff in consultationwith Bradley Stonefield. These will contain the details of duties and responsibilities to be performed by the selected individual. The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company will advertise the job opening in major media of mass circulation and community service bulletins. The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company will shortlist candidates for interview. If the applicant meets all the essential criteria defined in the job description the next process is the interview phase. The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company will conduct a two part interview sessions two sessions for drivers. First is the personality, background, skillset interview, which is the preliminary interview. This also includes the authentication of driver’s license and drug test. Before the preliminary interview start, the candidates are required to fill application form. It will contain information such as the applicant’s personal biodata, job experiences, and reason for leaving previous employment. Successful candidates in the first interview will be required to come back for the second interview. Bradley Stonefield and HR staff will make decision who to hire. All candidates will be asked the same questions and will be presented the same situational scenario or event. All questions will be job related to determine the suitability of the applicant to the position being filled out, whether that is a limousine driver or customer service receptionist The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company policies will serve as a guideline and administer the company employment process. The hiring procedure ensures that the most qualified candidates is selected. Bradley Stonefield uses a rigorous recruitment and selection process, which complies to the equal opportunity policy. The Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company recruitment strategies in vital in finding top talent. The recruitment strategies that are implemented by Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company are as follows: 1.) Recruiting through Internet. One of the advantages of using the internet is that it is easily accessible by anyone. 2.) Referrals. Recommended by friends, colleagues, acquaintances. 3.) Advertisements. Advertise job vacancies in the of newspapers great circulation. Again, it is extremely important that the selection process be evaluated regularly to verifyand confirm that the right applicants or employees have been selected or chosen. If Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company if the company has significant turnover in a given position, the process of recruitment and selection must be changed. People are a major component of any business, and the management of people (or human resource management, HRM) is a major part of every manager’s job. It is also the specialized responsibility of the HR department. HRM involves five major areas: staffing, retention, development, adjustment, and managing change. Together they compose the HRM system, for they describe a network of interrelated components. The HRM function is responsible for maximizing productivity, quality of work life, and profits through better management of people. Hiring manager, like Bradley Stonefield, must focus on recruiting activities aimed at attracting the right candidates for the job. Based on the needs and forecasts for future needs, Bradley Stonefield will need to direct his efforts toward the best option for recruiting the right candidates. For instance, focusing on traditional newspaper advertisements is appropriate for driver positions with the Bradley Stonefield Limousine Service Company. Selecting the right candidate requires identifying the specific skills, knowledge and qualities you seek and desire in a worker. This can pertain to the necessary skills and knowledge for the position itself, such as a specific degree or certification, and the desired personal qualities, such as a preference to hire employees with good moral and ethical standards. Other important parts of the selection process include conducting any necessary aptitude tests and conducting a thorough background check to ensure the employee meets the basic qualifications of both the position and the company.

Explication Of Jacques Derridas Signature Event Context English Language Essay

Explication Of Jacques Derridas Signature Event Context English Language Essay Derridas essay Signature Event Context was first delivered in the form of a spoken conference paper in Montreal in 1971 on the theme of Communication, and published initially as an essay as part of the conference Proceedings. The context of Derridas essay is relevant in relation to the theme of the paper itself. In its initial form, a spoken essay preformed or produced in the French language, the essay (now in its written English form), discusses the importance and differences of context in both the written language and in speech.  [1]   The essay was then published in 1988 in Graffs collection Limited Inc., which highlighted the differences between Anglo-American and European-Continental towards the theoretical debate on literary analysis.  [2]  The historical context of the essay is relevant to the themes of original meaning and context which are discussed within the essay. Derrida discusses the distinction between the nature of truth and language, and he presents arguments on the privileging of spoken words, which is deemed as being closer to the speaker and thereby the intended meaning; whereas written words are given a secondary status and the meaning is derived by the understanding of the listener. Derrida examines the meaning of context, and then the significance of context in relation to other factors surrounding a text, such as events, discourses and signature. He argues that these issues all factor into the meaning of the text as it is produced by the writer or speaker, and then understood by the listener or reader. Derrida begins the essay in a discussion on the nature and definition of Communication, when Derrida states: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦one must first of all ask oneself whether or not the word or signifier communication communicates a determinate content, an identifiable meaning, or a describable value. (Derrida 1). The word or signifier communication occurs twice, in the marked form communication, and again as the verb form communicates. For the reader the use of the word in this way signifies a question which must be explored in the text of the essay. For Derrida this is a rhetorical question. As readers and as a writer approaching the text, if the word communication had a definite or indisputable meaning, there would be no need for a discussion or essay on the subject. This is typical of Derridas stylistic approach in the rhetorical questioning which occurs throughout the text of the essay. The essay is then structured into three sections discussing the factors mentioned in the title Signature Event Context, and Derrida uses examples from other theorists in order to present his arguments for each element. In the first section on Writing and Communication Derrida looks at the arguments of Condillacs essay  [3]  because it : à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦contains an explicit reflection on the origin and function of the written textà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦which organizes itself here within a philosophical discourse that, in this case and throughout philosophy, presupposes the simplicity of the origin, the continuity of all derivation, of all production, of all analysis, and the homogeneity of all dimensions [orders]. (Derrida 4) In using Condillac Derrida is presenting the philosophical ideas on theories of writing from a classical theoretical perspective, whereby writing is taken as presenting the original ideas of the writer and all contributing factors to the writing such as origin, production, derivation and analysis and essentially equal in nature and quality. There is thus no hierarchical system to the elements which form writing, and all contributing factors producing a text, are equal in their importance and relevance to the formation and understanding of the text. Derrida suggests that Condillacs ideas on writing mean that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the birth and progress of writing will follow in a line that is direct, simple, and continuousà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦writing will never have the slightest effect on either the structure or the contents of the meaning (the ideas) that it is supposed to transmit [vehicular]. (Derrida 4) Here Derrida presents Condillacs analysis, whereby if writing is taken as a higher medium of communication than spoken language, the origin and progression of the writing remains an absolute which is uncomplicated and incorruptible; this therefore means that the written form is also constant in its meaning, and for the understanding of the reader. Derrida takes issue with the notion of an absolute meaning of the written later in his essay, and instead suggests that the only absolute in writing is the idea of absence. For Condillac, all writing denotes an absence. There is firstly the: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦absence of the addressee. One writes in order to communicate something to those who are absent. The absence of the receiver [destinateur], from the mark that he abandons, and which cuts itself off from him and continues to produce effects independently of his presence and of the present actuality of his intentions [vouloir-dire]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Derrida 5) The act of writing denotes an absence of the writer (absent at the time of reading), and the absence of the reader (absent at the time of the writing), which means that the writing exists independently of both reader and writer and is yet paradoxically linked to a presence. The writer is present in the writing at the time of reading because his/her intentions are made in the words that are written; the reader is present at the time of writing because the writer is intending to communicate an idea in his/her writing through the act of writing. The act of writing therefore implies the absence of both reader and writer. The writing is an independent entity which stands on its own merits after it is abandoned by the writer, yet still causes an effect on the reader; this effect is also autonomous from the actual intentions of the writer, as the understanding and interpretation depend on the reader. This brings Derrida to the second absolute in writing, which is the absence of a definitive meaning. As Derrida states: Representation regularly supplants [supplà ©e] presenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as a continuous and homogenous reparation and modification of presence in the representation. (Derrida 5) The presence of the writer is therefore denoted in the manner in which the text is received by the reader, whose understanding and interpretation of the text are founded not in the ideas which the writer is trying to communicate, but rather in a more practical system of understanding signs. The systematic rules of writing are based on the understanding of the written word; this is founded in language systems, which according to Derrida are only understandable because of their familiarity. Although signs give a representation of the idea which itself represented the object perceived (Derrida 6), it is only the familiarity which makes them understandable. Derrida states: My communication must be repeatable iterable in the absolute absence of the receiverà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦writing that is not structurally readable iterable beyond the death of the addressee would not be writing. (Derrida 7) The signs (words) must therefore be repeatable and repeated in different circumstances in order to be perceived and understand as to what they are signifying; and more importantly for Derrida what they are denoting or connoting. If the purpose of writing is to convey or communicate the writers ideas, the nature of language and words are a representation of something which is repeatable, no matter who the reader (or writer). Whereby writing is initially a means of communication, the actual physical marks and the meaning must have iterability, citability or citationality. All writing can be copied, or must be copyable in order to be classified as writing; therefore it must be open to both iteration and reiteration. For Derrida signs or writing, are essentially infinite in their iterability, in any capacity whether epistemic, grammatical or semiological; thus lies the distinction between written and oral communication (Derrida 9). Derrida also states that in the classical concept of writing, writing simultaneously carries with it a force that breaks with its context (Derrida 9). Derrida goes on to present an analysis of spoken language/signs from Husserl.  [4]  Again the iterability of spoken language is essential to the understanding of what is signified, denoted and understood by the listener, because language operates within a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦system of rules of universal grammar, not from a linguistic point of view but from a logical and epistemological one. (Derrida 12). This means one must be able to make certain other cultural, social and epistemological references which are understood, and thereby enable an understanding of words or spoken language. Derrida once again opens up his discussion of writing into a wider analysis of language, communication and cultural relevance. For Derrida the significance lies in that understanding is thereby taken à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in a context determined by a will to know (Derrida 12). The understanding of language and words, whether spoken or written lie in the wider context in which they are read or heard, rather a specific literal context of semantic meaning. This leads to the second section of the essay where Derrida discusses the notion of truth in language, through an examination of the event. Derridas analysis centres on criticism of Austins  [5]  ideas of communication in speech: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦speech acts only as acts of communicationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Communicating a force through the impetus [impulsion] of a mark à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the performative does not have its referent à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦outside of itself or any event, before and in front of itself. (Derrida 13) Derrida suggests here that John Austins ordinary language philosophy is in fact determined and restrictive, working only within a framework of definitively absolute unordinary exclusion; as Austin suggests that the performative nature of language takes precedent in communication. Austin analyses all utterances as performative, yet excludes performative speech acts which are quoted, which Derrida finds essentially problematic. This approach is limiting and restrictive, by focussing primarily on analysing the perlocution and illocution, Austin is forced to: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦free the analysis of the performative from the authority of the truth value, from the true/false opposition (Derrida 13). If language or words take on a performative dimension, this means that the utterances of the words will be placed within a situation (or context) which is independent of either the true essential meaning, or any false interpretation, of the intended meaning. The problem for Derrida is that the meaning of the words are essentially subordinated to the actual utterance or event of the speech, and/or the context within which they are uttered; which in turn produces an event in the meaning as it is understood by the listener. Derridas criticism of Austin also raises questions as to the totalising element of context whereby there is emphasis on the: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦conscious presence of the intention of the speaking subject in the totality of his speech act (Derrida 14) In the event of the speech act the presence of the speaker places an importance and foregrounding to the intention of the speaker; if the intention of the speaker is prominent in the speech act, then it must follow that the understanding of the receiver/listener becomes secondary. This leads to the inevitability that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦performative communication becomes once more the communication of an intentional meaningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Derrida 14) This poses a wider philosophical problem for Derrida in the context of literary or language discourse, as Austin also discusses the criterion of what actually constitutes a successful or failed speech act with elements of correctness and completeness (Derrida 15). This again is restrictive and finite, and goes against Derridas general philosophical openness and approach to literary theory. For Derrida there is an inherent possibility in the success of the event which lays in the possibilities of for example the infelicities in the event, and may not in fact be distinguishable from a successful event. For Derrida the failure of the event, whether deliberate or accidental, serves a greater purpose. Derrida suggests that the presence or potential of failure is what in fact constitutes the event as an ideal. The scope for error and the negative impact on the event, whilst it may destroy the idealistic approach to the event, in fact serves the paradoxical purpose of making the event ideal; by in its very nature in introducing an element of danger to the event. A perfect or ideal event would therefore have an element of danger, which is avoided. Although Austin cites theatrical events, recitations of poetry or literature as examples of felicitous speech events, as Derrida points out there is still scope for mistakes or errors in the utterances. Derrida ends the section on Event by taking an opposing view to Austin, in the similar vein to his opposition to Condillacs views and refers to the itability of the sign in general. Derrida states that speech utterances, or events have an itability. Austins view of the relative purity of performatives (Derrida 18) must be taken not: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in opposition to citationality or iterability, but in opposition to other kinds of iteration within a general iterability which constitutes a violation of the allegedly rigorous purity of every event of discourse or every speech act. (Derrida 18) Derridas view on the event of the speech act is that there is a background to the iterability or possible repetition of an utterance, which means that each utterance or speech act must be taken in the context in which it is said. This has an inevitable effect on the operation or understanding of the words which are spoken and what they signify. Contrary to Austins view that emphasise understanding of the thing and the notion (Derrida 18), Derrida stresses that we must also consider that the: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦motivations, indestructible necessity and systematic effects would be subject to analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Derrida 18) Here the importance of context is fore grounded in relation to the event and is subject to the same metaphysical origins (Derrida 18) which Austin appropriates to the event. Derrida concludes by suggesting that in order to understand context, the conscious intentions of the speaker (and receiver) must be definite. However consciousness is not a definite and is open to discussion and discourse. Therefore although utterances may be specific, the specificity is not exclusive to having an opposite or contrary effect on the listener and thus the event is open to further metaphysical debate. In the final section of the essay Derrida focuses on Signature' as an indicator and measure of the presence of the writer or author. The signature denotes the writer as the source of the text, or the speaker of an utterance, and they hold the form of regulation for the sign or words which are spoken or written. Derrida illustrates that the possibility and inevitability of repetition and iterability is essential to the signature; as with earlier discussions on the nature of signs and language. By its very nature the signature is iterable, as it must be, and is always repeated in order to be recognisable as a signature specific to the author. As Derrida points out although a signature is singular to the author, yet again paradoxically, there is an inevitable plurality to its production; in that it is repeated time and again as a sign of the presence of the writer. Derrida refers back to earlier arguments stating that: By definition, a written signature implies the actual or empirical nonpresence of the signer. (Derrida 20) The signature thereby signifies the absence of the writer, while at the same time denoting the presence of the signer in the past, and can be taken as a substitute for their physical presence; it also implies the presence of the reader in the future or present. Derrida also rather playfully adds his own signature to the end of the essay, as a performative example of an event. As readers we are made aware that Derrida must have at some point made the signature to the paper, however the printed copy of the signature in front of us is not the original or authentic mark/sign made by Derrida, it is an repeated printed copy of the same. This act highlights key elements of Derridas arguments from the essay, as to the nature of iterability, repetition, absence and context. The communication of Derridas ideas in the preceding essay are somehow signified as more genuine, or sincere because he has placed his signature at the end of the essay and placed a mark/sign of authenticity to the essay. Derridas conclusions to the essay tie in with this idea, in that while language can be philosophised in an ordinary manner, as a means of communicating semantics, there is always an underlying and infinite possibility to other factors such as presence, knowledge , representation, and truth. For Derrida the practice of communication and the spoken word or writing must be inclusive of these elements in order for a text to be understood or communicated in its entirety. Derridas stylistic presence is evident in the title and structure of the essay, in the use of questions, often at times rhetorical, and the proposition of paradoxes. The essay is actually structured in the reverse order of the title Signature Event Context: Context is discussed first in presentation of Condillacs ideas, followed by Austins arguments on the Event, and the essay ends with Derridas thoughts on Signature.  [6]  This playing with the order of the elements which Derrida is discussing is somewhat typical of Derridas stylistic and consciously playful approach to writing. At times the language and style is analogous to the spoken word or a speech; which again is self-referential to the form of the text, as it was initially a spoken text/utterance. The form and structure of the essay reiterates the ideas and arguments that Derrida presents. The essay is structured in a fairly accessible yet formal manner whereby Derrida at times breaks arguments or ideas down into listed or numbered sections. Although the complexity of the ideas and concepts presented are perhaps more complicated than the stylistic form of the written language. Derrida repeats certain points and arguments, by presenting his theories in a manner which reiterates the essence of his arguments, and by repeating the same central arguments in a slightly altered form. He uses repetition of the arguments to make the ideas that he is presenting familiar and understandable to the reader, and this is his general approach to the function and understanding of language, signs and words the more familiar we become with words, the easier they are to understand in their true meaning. The meaning lies in the repetition and iterability not only of the words, but also in the concepts and ideas which lie beneath the semantics of the sentences and content of the essay. Derridas arguments are therefore communicated to us as readers when we read and understand the text in the context of the structure of the essay, and experience the text as part of a wider cultural discourse.